1. Overview and Good Bridge Practices
Chapter 4 covers the approach to the berth — the phase between the channel transit and the moment the ship is finally alongside. The opening epigraph sets the tone: "There are many old pilots, and many fast pilots, but there are few old, fast pilots." Excessive speed is the shiphandler's worst enemy, and the approach is where it most often appears.
The chapter's narrative example shows a docking master berthing a ship in a strong north-westerly breeze with complete calm — slow, deliberate helm orders, hand signals, and no sign of tension. From this, three good bridge practices are drawn, all as important as the technical skill of docking.
1.1 Three Good Bridge Practices
First, select one working position and stay there until nearly alongside — generally amidships. Moving frantically from wing to wing to wheelhouse, supposedly for an unobstructed view, actually destroys the shiphandler's sense of distance, speed, and lateral motion. The heading is obvious from anywhere; the ship's motion ahead and athwartships is not. Only when cargo and superstructure finally block the view should a move be made to the bridge wing, where the shiphandler then stays until the docking is complete.
Second, supplement every helm order with a hand signal to right or left. A helmsman — especially after a long passage — will quite commonly repeat an order correctly and then put the wheel the opposite way; pointing in the intended direction as the order is given almost eliminates this error, and removes any ambiguity from language differences.
Third, remain calm. Excitement is contagious and is the usual root of errors in judgment. Even when a problem develops, the shiphandler who keeps his concern from showing prevents the shouting and running about that only worsen a bad situation. The shiphandler controls the mood of the bridge as much as the movement of the ship.
2. Discussing Docking Plans
Discuss the approach and docking plan with the docking master well before reaching the berth. He should not be expected to predict each bell and helm order, but a shared understanding of the general plan must be reached. Five points should be covered.
| # | What to establish before the berth |
|---|---|
| 1 | The approach, including any special maneuvers or engine requirements. |
| 2 | The placement of tugs. |
| 3 | The configuration of the berth — poorly located dolphins, vessels to maneuver around or between, unusual space restrictions. This is the moment to cancel the docking if it cannot be done safely — not when the ship is already halfway up the slip and being set down on the vessel in the berth astern. |
| 4 | Special requirements, such as a need for the anchor or unusual leads for the mooring lines. |
| 5 | The current and wind expected at the berth — often different from the tables, and best obtained from the docking master's local knowledge. |
In turn, give the docking master all the same information the channel pilot received in Chapter 1. He is too often poorly briefed because "the passage is almost over," yet it is at least as important that he be fully informed. Do not hand him a two-page preprinted form demanding a detailed "docking plan" with predicted bells and headings — he cannot produce one, and such forms only reveal the originator's lack of professional background. An intelligent discussion between two professionals suffices. If you disagree with the proposed plan, say so before the evolution begins, not in the middle of it.
3. Timing Arrival — Holding in a Channel
It may be necessary to arrive at a berth, turning basin, or lock at a specified time — to dock at slack water, or because tugs or the berth are not available until then. This is a routine navigational problem. The common mistake is to plan to arrive exactly on schedule with no margin for delay. A ship can easily take an hour to cover the last mile, so extra time should always be allowed.
To hold position while waiting, the master or pilot can use any of four techniques. Arriving early also gives a chance to practise them and build confidence — whereas arriving late forces the use of excessive speed.
| # | Holding technique |
|---|---|
| 1 | Anchor to a short scope of chain with a head tide. |
| 2 | Steam on an anchor at slow engine speed, holding position and heading even with a moderate beam wind. |
| 3 | Hold with a tug on each bow, using the engine as needed while the tugs minimize headway. |
| 4 | Back and fill as necessary, with surprisingly little advance up the channel. |
4. Speed of Approach
The major difference between the neophyte and the experienced shiphandler is the speed at which they work — the less experienced generally work too fast. Do not equate increased speed with increased ability. When beginning the approach, reduce speed to bare steerageway: much slower than most mariners realize. In calm conditions a rare ship will not steer below 2 knots if given a chance to respond, and short kicks of the engine with hard-over rudder will make even the worst-handling ship answer. If more response is needed, use a tug or work against an anchor — never increase headway. When unsure of speed, take all headway off: you then know the speed through the water exactly, and can come ahead only as required.
4.1 Methods of Judging Speed
| Method | What it gives / caution |
|---|---|
| Doppler log and/or GPS | Direct readout of speed over the bottom (Doppler also speed through water offshore). Single- and three-point Doppler are extremely valuable on larger ships. GPS speed degrades once the vessel begins to swing. |
| Fixes by radar / visual bearings | Neither convenient nor accurate enough for a docking situation. |
| Quickwater position | The only method giving speed through the water, not over the bottom. Extremely useful at low speed. |
| Passing objects vs known distances | Needs experience; look abeam or a little abaft the beam, never forward (optical illusion makes the ship seem slower than she is). |
4.2 Reading the Quickwater
The quickwater — the wash thrown forward as the engine goes astern — is a reliable low-speed gauge. If the quickwater falls behind the ship, speed is 3 knots or more; when it begins to move with the ship, speed is about 2 knots; when the wash reaches the midsection, the ship is dead in the water. Since 2 knots is a comfortable approach speed for an average ship, at night a light dropped on the water lets the shiphandler back until the quickwater shows the desired 2 knots.
4.3 Developing the Skill, and a Panama Rule of Thumb
How does a seaman become experienced? By practice — estimate the ship's speed at every chance and check it against the Doppler, a pier of known length, or a more experienced shiphandler. Apprehension comes from uncertainty, so this skill builds confidence. Panama Canal pilots judge speed by the long bank lights at night: aligning the after edge of a light with a fixed point on the ship (a wheelhouse window) and counting seconds for the whole light to pass — the light passes in 2 seconds at 2 knots. Always distinguish speed over the ground (which sets the speed of arrival at the pier) from speed through the water (which governs rudder response). Docking while stemming the current is an advantage; docking with the current astern demands more skill.
5. Reducing Speed Early
Speed matters most during the approach because a ship is less controllable when the engine is used astern to reduce headway. Keep speed to a minimum and the engine can be used as needed without arriving with excessive way. Fail to reduce early and the shiphandler has "a tiger by the tail" — needing to slow down, yet forced to use ahead engine to control the ship while shaping up. Many handlers therefore stop the ship completely about one ship length from the berth, especially at night when speed is hardest to judge: the speed is then certainly zero, and the engine can be used freely.
6. The Approach
A good docking begins long before the ship is alongside — the approach is at least one-third of the docking. With speed reduced, the ship lined up with the pier, and all lateral motion eliminated, she "practically docks herself."
6.1 Starboard-Side-To and Port-Side-To
Assume a right-hand turning propeller. Berthing starboard side to, the ship approaches at only a small angle to the dock: when the engine is backed to take off the last headway, the stern walks to port, so a large initial angle makes it harder to come flat alongside. This backing tendency is amplified by quickwater trapped between hull and berth running up the ship's side, which is why a deeply loaded ship usually needs a tug aft to hold the stern up when docking starboard side to. Berthing port side to, the ship holds a greater angle — about 10 to 15 degrees — with the bow aimed at the part of the pier that will be amidships when alongside. Backing then swings the stern to port and reduces the angle, bringing the ship flat; left rudder and a kick ahead check that port swing as she lands, so no tug aft is needed.
6.2 Factors That Modify the Angle of Approach
The basic angle is adjusted for the situation. It is impractical to cover each docking step in cookbook fashion; understanding the basics lets the mariner use good seamanship to adapt. Eight factors modify the angle of approach.
| # | Factor modifying the angle of approach |
|---|---|
| 1 | Wind strength and relative direction. |
| 2 | Set and drift of the current. |
| 3 | Ship's draft and freeboard. |
| 4 | Ship's power and steering characteristics. |
| 5 | Whether the pier has an open or solid face. |
| 6 | Physical configuration of the berth. |
| 7 | Availability of adequate tug assistance. |
| 8 | Presence of other vessels in the berth or slip. |
Ships generally approach either a pier built at an angle to the channel or a wharf paralleling the channel, and may dock bow or stern in at a pier, or heading upstream or downstream at a wharf.
7. Bow-In Approach to a Pier
A ship docking bow in should turn and line up at the greatest possible distance from the pier: this simplifies the docking and minimizes lateral motion on the way in. The basic approach angle is increased or decreased to allow for set and leeway toward or away from the pier from current and wind.
If those forces are too strong for a safe direct docking, the ship can land on a camel or a cluster of pilings at the outboard corner of the pier, then either come ahead on a bight led as a spring line or have a tug push on the bow to bring her into the slip. As ships grow larger, coming ahead against a spring in the classic way to warp a ship into a slip becomes impractical, and tugs are generally required.
8. Stern-In Approach to a Pier
When docking stern in, use the location of the ship's pivot point as the reference for judging how far to pass off the end of the pier and where to turn away and begin backing. The angle of approach matters less here because the tugs do the steering. Since the stern walks to port when the engine is backed, a small angle toward the berth is desirable when docking starboard side to. The engine and rudder can assist the tugs — coming ahead briefly to move the stern, but never so long that the ship gains headway.
8.1 Using a Hawser Tug Astern
Although the figure shows tugs on the bow and quarter, the after tug can instead work on a hawser at the stern when berthing stern in — with real advantages. The ship's engine can run ahead with rudder to steer, while the hawser tug keeps her moving astern by pulling in opposition to the engine. This combination is well worth considering.
8.2 Controlling Lateral Motion and the Stern Tug
Never push with the tugs so long that excessive lateral motion develops toward the berth, landing the ship heavily against the stringpiece. It is lateral motion that the inexperienced shiphandler most struggles to detect and control — and no one becomes a shiphandler without learning to appreciate sideward motion. As stressed in the previous chapter, the stern tug stands off until actually needed: it must not make fast until the ship has turned her stern toward the slip and is dead in the water, since once fast its weight and underwater profile alone set the stern toward the pier as the ship backs. This is amplified when docking port side to, because the stern already tends to walk to port when backing. The bow tug is best made up with a backing line only, so it simply trails bow-to-bow and comes ahead on either bow to steer, without setting the ship toward the berth.
9. Stemming the Current at a Wharf
Berthing starboard or port side to a wharf while stemming the current is straightforward, handled as already described with adjustment for wind and current. Expect some set off the wharf as the ship comes alongside: it arises from the eddy current that forms along the shore or shoal under the wharf, combined with a hydraulic cushion built between the hull and the shallow area beneath the wharf. This cushion is strong when the wharf face is solid — common where a bulkhead contains the bank behind the stringpiece. Plan for this set so the ship can be brought alongside and held until made fast, using tugs, steaming against an anchor, or good breast lines. Do not expect the ship to simply lie alongside unaided until the lines are ashore.
10. Approaching a Wharf — Current Astern
Docking at a wharf with the current from astern demands greater planning and skill. The ship comes up to the berth intending to back into position, because she will be making sternway through the water while stopped relative to the wharf. Thinking of the job this way — "the ship is coming stern first into the current to the berth" — makes the maneuver far more straightforward.
10.1 Letting the Current Set the Ship Alongside
Come abeam of the berth with two tugs made fast and take all headway off. Continue backing the engine while keeping the stern angled slightly toward the wharf; as the ship gains sternway through the water (while stopped or nearly stopped relative to the bottom), the current on the offshore side moves her laterally toward the wharf. Use only enough speed to hold position, and use the tugs as required while the current sets the ship alongside.
10.2 Holding the Ship Once Alongside
Once alongside, the tugs hold the ship against the eddy current at the wharf, and the engine is used continuously — so the mate on the stern must keep the propeller clear while running stern lines. The tugs help by keeping an angle into the current rather than at right angles to the hull, their thrust holding the ship alongside and up to the current. Berthing with the current astern is not a problem provided it is remembered that the ship is effectively backing into position: adjust the angle to the current — stern toward the dock to move in, stern parallel to check the motion — and let the current do the work. Problems arise when the handler tries to push the ship alongside with the tugs instead of letting the current set her on, so the current takes charge and the ship gets away. Use the tugs only to keep the needed angle.
